Fencing is a martial art that has evolved over centuries, with its roots tracing back to ancient Rome. The art of fencing has been passed down through generations, with each generation building on the knowledge of the previous one. One of the most influential treatises on fencing is the work of Giuseppe Morsicato Pallavicini. “The Art of Fencing”, was published in 1670 and is considered to be one of the most comprehensive works on the subject from the Sicilian perspective. 

Fencing Illustrated focuses on the use of the rapier alone and lays out Pallavicini’s history of fencing, the use of the rapier, and plays with the rapier. The first six chapters cover the history of fencing, while interesting, is beyond the scope of this article. Chapters seven to seventeen are Pallavicini’s discussion on the use of the sword, how to grip the sword, how to stand, movement, and some training tools. 

Please note, there will be repeating themes below. This is because Pallavicini, in the long tradition of at least Italian fencing masters, repeats himself a great deal. If you see a topic in one chapter, repeated or contradicted in later chapters, know this is not an oversight, but Pallavicini repeating or contradicting himself. 

Chapter Seven

Pallavicini stresses the importance of rational practice and the application of theory to practical lessons. This chapter discusses Pallavicini’s teachings on rational practice, the use of the sword in real life, and the techniques for gripping and treating the sword. Additionally, we will discuss the concepts of strong, weak, greater, and lesser, and the four guards.

Pallavicini emphasizes the importance of theory in learning fencing. He suggests that students should be well-read and familiar with basic movements and plays before practicing fencing. A well-read student is one who has read, not only texts for the weapon he or she is studying, but also additional texts from other weapons. Pallavicini recommends private lessons for beginners to understand techniques in theory before joining group classes. This way, students will have a better understanding of the art and be able to apply theory to practical lessons.

Pallavicini’s focus on rational practice aligns with the teachings of many fencing masters throughout history. For example, Salvator Fabris, a prominent fencing master in the 16th century, believed that theory was essential to master fencing. He wrote in his book Lo Schermo, “Theory without practice is useless, but practice without theory is blind” (Fabris, 1606).

According to Pallavicini, theory must be backed by practice, but when teaching fencing, it is essential to teach theory first and then apply it to practice. In a modern sense, this might be akin to assigning homework for the student to read, and the next lesson would be doing what the student was requested to read. This approach also implies that private lessons are necessary to ensure that the student has a good understanding of the techniques before joining group classes, a practice which has explicit roots to Marozzo, and likely before.

Pallavicini believes that the sword should only be used in defense of truth and the Republic. He is against the use of the sword for dueling purposes. He sees the art of fencing as a necessary virtue for great Signori and Cavallieri, but not for restless duellists, “spurred on by vice and the Devil, leader of the sinful in the oppression of the neighbor”.

This view is in line with the teachings of many fencing masters throughout history, who saw the art of fencing as a means of self-defense and a necessary virtue for gentlemen. For example, Ridolfo Capo Ferro, a prominent Italian fencing master in the 17th century, believed that the primary purpose of fencing was to defend oneself in a life or death situation. He wrote in his book Gran Simulacro dell’Arte e dell’Uso della Scherma “the true end of fencing is the preservation of life, and the best way to attain this end is to defend oneself with skill against an attacker” (Capo Ferro, 1610).

Pallavicini, in agreement with Matteo Gallici (Pallavicini’s maestro) recommends carrying a sword with edges, and does not approve of the use of the estoc or the verdugo. The edge allows a fencer to offend with the sword beyond the point. However, he does not give any other advice in this chapter on gripping the sword (see chapter thirteen below). Pallavicini cites Camillo Agrippa, a prominent Italian fencing master in the 16th century, who believed the grip of the sword was essential to successful fencing. He wrote in his book Trattato di Scientia d’Arme “it is necessary that the hand be so placed on the hilt that the fingers are positioned in such a way that they are both firm and agile” (Agrippa, 1553).

Pallavicini discusses the concepts of strong, weak, greater, and lesser. He explains that there are three parts of the sword: strong for control, middle for parrying, and weak for offending. This concept aligns with the teachings of Giacomo di Grassi, an Italian fencing master in the 16th century. Pallavicini believes there are nine degrees of the blade, each part, strong, middle, and weak having three degrees each. He also describes the four parts of the sword: the false edge, true edge, flat inside, and flat outside. Pallavicini does not provide any specific uses for the flats but focuses on their importance in the overall structure of the sword.

Pallavicini uses the guards described by Fabris in his text Scenza d’Arme: Prima, Seconda, Terza, and Quarta, which are executed on the outside. Pallavicini’s illustrations depict fencing from an almost modern fencing profile, with each guard executed with the weapon arm fully extended or nearly fully extended. Each guard is slightly lower than the previous one, and Pallavicini provides specific examples of the offensive and defensive techniques associated with each guard. Prima is a hanging guard, with the true edge up. Each guard is lowered and rotated 90 degrees, with Quarta being a low guard near the lead leg and the palm up.

Chapter Eight

Measure is a critical concept in fencing that refers to the distance between the fencers. In fencing, measure is not only about the physical distance between the fencers but also about the time it takes to reach each other. Fencers need to be aware of the measure to execute their techniques effectively.

Pallavicini suggests that the proper distance of the feet for fencing should be 3 ½ palmi from the rear heel to the middle of the right foot. The 17th century Sicilian palmo is an unknown exact measurement, but according to Pallavicini’s citation of Maestro Docciolini, the measurement works out to be about 1/3rd of the fencer’s height between the feet. This is a wide guard, but it works with Pallavicini’s idea of changing foot widths based on the guard of the opponent. If the fencer can fight from such a wide guard, they can easily fight from a more narrow guard.

To learn measure, Pallavicini recommends making a mark on the wall and setting the feet narrowly apart, making a mark where the lead foot is. With the arm extended, the fencer should make a passing step and strike the mark. Once this is mastered, the fencer can adjust the distance or angle of attack. This exercise teaches the fencer to know when they are in measure, not when they are in the opponent’s measure. The point should land on the mark without excessively flexing the blade or falling short. Both measure and point control need to be mastered before adjusting distance or angle. However, it is important to note that this exercise does not teach the fencer when they are inside an opponent’s measure.

Assuming the opposite guard of the opponent is another essential concept in fencing. It means that the fencer takes the guard opposite to the opponent’s guard. In the images from Fiore’s works, several plays show the fencers in opposing guards, but many also show them in the same guard as the opponent. The opposing guards tend to be right vs. left instead of high vs. low in Pallavicini. Pallavicini states that guards that are similar are counters to each other, with the exception of the guards that stand ready to thrust. Pallavicini states prima opposes quattro, and seconda opposes terza; however, seconda also opposes all the guards. Marrazzo is more explicit, setting his plays where the student is in an opposing guard to the opponent, generally high vs. low (or vice versa) guards. In both authors’ works, there is enough evidence in the plays that they want the fencer to take the opposing guard to the opponent.

Counter-tempo is an advanced technique in fencing that requires a firm understanding of measure, tempo, attacks, defense, and movement. It is an ideal attack that happens between the movements of the sword or dagger. It is an incredibly dangerous, but powerful tool that requires a firm understanding of measure, tempo, attacks, defense, and movement. Many of the plays in Pallavicini’s book can be called counter-tempo, to no surprise. This continues Pallavicini’s prime fencing rule, the maestro of fencing attacks in a single tempo.

Chapter Nine

Feints are a powerful tool in the fencer’s arsenal, allowing them to create openings in their opponent’s defenses and launch successful attacks. The basic principle of a feint is to present a false attack, drawing the opponent’s blade away from its true intended target, and then exploiting the opening that this creates. As Pallavicini notes “the sword alone is always moving, threatening the opponent with a feint.” By constantly threatening with the sword, a fencer can keep their opponent off-balance and uncertain, making it more difficult for them to mount an effective defense.

There are several different types of feints that can be employed in fencing. The most common type is the feint by sword, in which the fencer makes a false attack with the blade, either to a different target or to the same target in a different line. This type of feint requires a high level of skill, as it involves mastery of timing, distance, and blade control. As Pallavicini notes, “the feint by blade is the best because it requires mastery of so many elements of the art.”

Another type of feint is the feint by stamping the foot. This type of feint is particularly effective against inexperienced fencers, as the sudden noise and movement can startle them and cause them to lose their composure. However, as Pallavicini notes, this type of feint is not effective against more experienced fencers, who will either ignore the stamp or use it as an opportunity to attack.

The third type of feint is the feint by measure, also known as disordinata. This type of feint involves manipulating distance and footwork to create an opening in the opponent’s defenses. It can be executed by stepping in and out of measure, or by conducting passing steps off-line. This type of feint is particularly effective when combined with other techniques, such as counter-time or counter-attacks.

While feints can be highly effective in creating openings and launching successful attacks, they also come with a certain amount of risk. Feints are a two-tempo maneuver, meaning that they require two movements to execute: the feint itself, and the subsequent attack. This can make them more difficult to execute successfully, as the opponent has time to react and counter-attack.

Additionally, feints require a high degree of confidence and control. As Pallavicini notes, “the first attack (the feint) must be made with such confidence and vigor, that the opponent finds it so dangerous they must parry, if they don’t, they will be struck.” If the feint is not delivered convincingly, the opponent may see through it and launch a counter-attack.

Despite these risks, the rewards of feinting can be significant. A well-executed feint can create a clear opening in the opponent’s defenses, allowing the fencer to launch a successful attack. Feints can also be used to disrupt the opponent’s rhythm and timing, making it more difficult for them to mount an effective defense.

Chapter Ten

All fencing is based on tempo. This is a fundamental principle in the art of fencing that has been emphasized by many fencing masters over the centuries. Without knowledge of tempo, it is impossible to become a skilled fencer.

In fencing, every motion of the blade or foot is a tempo. A tempo is a measure of time or rhythm in fencing. It is the interval between two actions or movements of the fencer. Every time a fencer moves his or her blade, it creates a tempo. However, it is not considered a tempo if the fencer is not able to strike their opponent. In other words, a tempo is only considered valid if the fencer can execute an attack within that tempo.

In addition to blade movements, footwork can also create a tempo. When a fencer moves their feet in combination with a blade movement, it creates a tempo. Pallavicini believes that tempo can only be measured while in engagement range. However, in the previous chapter, he mentions the feint by footwork, which might be from outside of engagement range. He also states that the feint, which is measured in two tempi, must begin from outside of measure. Therefore, tempo must also begin from outside of engagement range. Pallavicini may be referring to the idea that when a fencer uses actions with the blade and foot together to bring themselves into engagement range, they count that as a tempo.

One important aspect of tempo in fencing is the concept of striking in tempo. This occurs when the opponent moves to attack with one tempo, and the fencer attacks their opponent within that same tempo. This is known as a counter-tempo attack. Counter-tempo is an incredibly effective technique, but it requires a high level of skill and training to execute effectively.

Pallavicini emphasizes the importance of counter-tempo in fencing. He believes that it is an essential technique that every fencer should master. However, it requires a great deal of training and practice to be able to execute counter-tempo attacks successfully. The ability to strike in tempo is crucial to the success of any fencer, and it is a fundamental principle that should be mastered by all fencers.

Chapter Twelve

Pallavicini’s approach to footwork in fencing is based on a few key principles. Firstly, he emphasizes the importance of maintaining a proper stance. According to Pallavici, the fencer’s stance should be 3 ½ palmi or ⅓ the height of the fencer, with the right foot in line with the left heel, bent rear knee, arm extended in terza, and body in profile. The spacing between the feet is measured to the middle of the right foot.

Pallavicini also emphasizes the importance of small steps to disguise the fencer’s intention and movement. He suggests that the fencer should advance the left (rear) foot first, and only half a foot length. This advance is the same as the Bolognese school’s advance. Small advances can hide your movement, but not that much, and they generally need to be paired with a large forward movement, which Pallavicini does not seem to include.

Pallavicini also describes two plays, advancing (scurso) and firm. Advancing (scurso) involves feints and movement from a distance, while firm is performed in measure without moving the feet. Pallavicini believes that scurso is the better of the two plays. This sounds like Pallavicini’s variation on the larga and stretta plays respectively. It is interesting to see the revival of the larga play from the Bolognese period where larga was idealized but stretta was the norm, to the late 1600s where larga became the norm. Francesco Antonio Dal’Aggochie, another notable Italian fencing master, lamented the loss of the larga style of fencing. In my own practice, even with a shorter weapon, I find I am much more successful when starting from larga.

Pallavicini also describes several steps used in fencing. The ½ step is the standard step as defined above, and it is the smallest fencing step ever recorded. The scurso step is a double advance, and it is useful for covering ground quickly. The curved step involves stepping to the left and engaging the blade in 2nd, which is the fixed play inquartata that Pallavicini likes. The mixed step involves advancing with the right foot and then stepping to the outside with the left foot, resulting in an aggressive inquartata. The Spanish Conclusion involves stepping with the left foot toward the opposing sword (your inside) to engage the blade and stepping back with the right foot. This step is interesting as it changes the lead leg and angle, but gives up measure. However, it could set up a great lunge in opposition.

Pallavicini also provides guidance on counter-moves. For instance, when an opponent makes a transverse step and engages in 3rd, the counter is to circle step. To counter this move, Pallavicini recommends disengaging and attacking the opponent’s inside. This play, with a counter and counter in it, could be a great movement drill once broken down.

Chapter Thirteen

Sicilian sword fighting has a rich history and culture that has been passed down through generations. It is a complex and nuanced martial art that requires discipline and training to master. One of the key techniques used in Sicilian sword fighting is the grip of the sword, which differs from other European styles.

In Sicily, the sword is gripped with two fingers in the incaso and the thumb on the ricasso. This differs from the grip used by mainland Italians and Spanish, who use only one finger in the incaso, and other European styles that use none. According to Pallavicini, using two fingers in the incaso gives the fighter extra strength in the guard and helps with fatigue in the hand and wrist, even when using a lighter blade than opponents.

The mandritto and roverso come in full and half-circle variants. The mandritto is a cut from your outside, and a roverso is a cut from your inside. The full-circle cut is one where the blade traverses a full circle, the same as a molinello. A half-circle cut is where the blade traverses less than a full-circle (generally just pulling the blade back with the elbow or wrist before extending into the cut), this would be the same as a half-molinello. A cavazione or disengage can be used in and out of measure. When out of measure, the blade should be engaged. Once engaged, a gathering step and lunge with a disengage should be executed.

In a specific attack sequence, the hand should be in 4th on the outside, engaging with the false edge. A half-mandritto should be feinted to the face, and when parried, disengage to the flank with the point. Then make a cut to the head and weapon arm. Pallavicini uses the term cavazione for the disengage, but this movement is less of a formal disengage and more of a drop the point and lunge. The follow-up cut is essentially a roverso, though Pallavicini uses a technical term.

If an opponent disengages when engaged, the fighter should disengage with them and engage with the true edge, hand in 4th. They should then thrust to the face in opposition. This is a pure and simple counter-disengagement, followed by a thrust in opposition that any Olympic foil or epee fencer should know exactly how to do.

Finally, it is important to use the proper degree of the sword. The degree of the sword is important so that a fighter can get the 3rd degree of their strong, the farthest part of their strong, on any part of their opponent’s middle to ensure they have the greatest chance of striking their opponent. This is a buried play that cries out to be turned into a drill and run over and over again.

Chapter Fourteen

According to Pallavicini, a Maestro must possess several qualities to be effective as a fencing instructor. Firstly, a Maestro should be of good stature, physically fit, and knowledgeable in fencing with the sword alone and other weapons. Pallavicini notes that fencing with the sword alone is critical, as it provides a foundation for using other weapons. In addition, a Maestro must be well composed, have good judgment, and be brave. Pallavicini emphasizes the importance of being strong, skillful, and practicing, as they are all interconnected and necessary for mastery of the art. Knowledge of fencing terminology and the ability to demonstrate it is also a vital quality, as it adds to the professionalism of the instructor. Finally, Pallavicini notes that a Maestro must have fenced people of other nationalities, providing a diverse range of experiences.

These qualities mentioned by Pallavicini are still relevant today in the world of fencing. A Maestro should be physically fit and knowledgeable in fencing, regardless of the weapons being used. The qualities of being well composed and having good judgment are essential in teaching students, as frustration is a common occurrence in learning any new skill. The importance of being brave cannot be understated, as teaching requires putting oneself out there and taking risks.

However, the statement that all fencing descends from the Roman school is debatable. While there may be some merit to this claim, it is essential to acknowledge that fencing has evolved over centuries and has been influenced by different cultures and regions. Moreover, the assertion that students must begin before 16 is also questionable. While it is essential to ensure that students are physically capable of undertaking martial training, age alone should not be the determining factor.

Pallavicini also outlines the methods that a Maestro should use to teach fencing to students. According to Pallavicini, the student should start by holding the sword, then learning the stance, followed by theory and real practice. The Maestro should allow the student to win early bouts to build confidence, but when the student is confident, attack with full force to test their skill. When errors occur, the Maestro should teach why it is an error and how to correct it, while successes should be explained to the student. When ready, the student should fence a senior student under the Maestro’s supervision.

Pallavicini also recommends teaching the rules of first intention before second intention. First intention refers to a direct attack, while second intention refers to a feint or indirect attack. It is important for students to master first intention plays before moving on to more advanced techniques.

Chapter Sixteen

The stance is a crucial element in fencing, as it serves as the foundation for the fencer’s movements and attacks. The stance’s primary function is to provide balance and stability to the fencer, allowing them to move quickly and accurately. The stance also determines the distance between the fencer and their opponent, which is crucial for delivering attacks and avoiding counterattacks. Finally, the stance can influence the fencer’s psychology and strategy, as it can convey confidence, aggression, or caution to the opponent.

Pallavicini provides detailed instructions for assuming the proper stance in fencing. According to Pallavicini, the fencer should lower the point of the sword to the ground, keeping the left knee bent, and the body standing in the center. The right foot must advance, so that the point of the sword and the point of the right foot touch. The left elbow should be over the left knee, and the arm should be fully extended, with the sword and arm forming a 90-degree angle. The point of the sword should be at the tip of the right foot.

Pallavicini’s instructions for the fencing stance are consistent with the principles of historical fencing. The stance he describes is known as the “Alta Stagione” or “High Season” stance, which was common in Italian fencing schools during the 16th and 17th centuries (Angelo, 1799). The “High Season” stance emphasized the importance of balance, stability, and mobility, and it allowed the fencer to deliver quick and accurate attacks while maintaining a defensive posture.

Pallavicini’s instructions also reflect the importance of the footwork in fencing. The footwork is a critical component of the stance, as it determines the fencer’s distance from their opponent and enables them to move quickly and smoothly. Pallavicini’s instructions emphasize the importance of advancing the right foot, which is consistent with the principles of Italian fencing schools. In Italian fencing, the right foot is considered the “sword foot,” as it provides the necessary support and balance for delivering attacks and maintaining a defensive posture (Danzig, 1933).

Finally, Pallavicini’s instructions provide specific measurements for the foot spacing in the stance. According to Pallavicini, the fencer’s foot spacing should be half their height, which would put the foot spacing for a 5’10 fencer at 34 inches. Pallavicini’s foot spacing is consistent with the principles of historical fencing, which emphasized the importance of maintaining a defensive posture and avoiding excessive lunging or overextension. However, Pallavicini’s foot spacing is larger than the spacing used in modern fencing or earlier sidesword fencing, which typically used foot spacing of one-third the fencer’s height (Clements, 1997).

Chapter Seventeen

The stoccata is a lunge where the torso remains erect, as opposed to the modern lunge where the torso leans forward. To execute the stoccata, the fencer brings his or her left foot forward and then pushes forward so that the left leg is straight and the right knee is bent. This footwork is critical in achieving the desired form and execution of the stoccata. It enables the fencer to maintain balance and control while delivering a powerful thrust to the opponent.

A thrust in tempo is a riposte where the fencer parries and ripostes in one tempo. This means that the fencer executes the riposte immediately after the opponent’s attack. The riposte is delivered while the opponent is still in the process of recovering from their initial attack. A thrust in tempo requires quick reflexes and excellent timing. It is a powerful counterattack that can catch the opponent off guard and lead to a quick victory.

On the other hand, a thrust after tempo is an attack that is made after the opponent misses. This means that the fencer waits for the opponent’s attack to miss and then executes their own attack. The thrust after tempo is a less risky technique than the thrust in tempo, as it allows the fencer to wait for the right moment to strike. However, it requires patience and good observation skills to be able to anticipate the opponent’s movements and execute the attack at the right time.

Contratempo is a technique where the fencer attacks when the opponent wishes to attack before he or she finishes his or her tempo. This means that the fencer executes an attack while the opponent is still in the process of attacking. Contratempo is a risky technique as it requires the fencer to anticipate the opponent’s movements accurately. If the fencer mistimes their attack, they risk being hit by the opponent’s attack.